The following is from an article I first produced for Discover my Past Scotland in 2011, with links updated, a few corrections, and somewhat expanded from the original:
Agricultural Labourers
Some of the hardest occupations to research within a family tree are those of our agricultural labouring forebears, who causes so much depression for many of us upon their discovery within the censuses. Many
will have worked as farmers, ploughmen and farm servants (referred to
in some parts as 'hinds'), dairy maids, and female servants. Some worked collectively in ‘touns’, sharing land cultivated through the ‘runrig’ system, with each member of the settlement allocated strips of raised soil (known as ‘rigs’) for the growth of a particular crop. Others existed as pendiclers or cottars, inhabiting a small hut or building surrounded by an acre or two of cultivated soil from which they eked a living. They worked for the benefit of their feudal landowner, and if they made any kind of profit from their year’s labour after the payments of taxes and rents, they were indeed fortunate in the extreme.
Prior to the 18th century rent was paid in kind, with yield such as grain, butter and milk, and some financial payment. Tenants and their families also had to work for their landowner for several days in a year, known as ‘bondage days’, as well as through other means, such as the practice of ‘thirlage’ in feudal baronies. This much hated law required all tenants to grind their corn at the landowner’s mill, and to give a proportion of the grain known as a ‘multure’ (pronounced ‘mooter’) to the mill operator, often as much as a twelfth of the total amount. The law was abolished in 1779, leading to the decline of many mills not long after. Tenants were also required to pay local taxes such as cess, scat, and wattle, and to perform other duties such as the carrying of coals to a proprietor’s house from a great distance.
The Agricultural Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries began to change the countryside and the agrarian lifestyle dramatically. Many Lowland estate holders enclosed vast numbers of smallholdings on their land into larger farms in an attempt to better manage and improve the soil through new agricultural techniques, many of them introduced from England. At the same time rents were increased dramatically. On other estates in the Highlands tenants were forcibly cleared to make way for more profitable sheep farming. As a result of all of these changes many families lost tenancies on the land on which they had previously worked. Some were repatriated to coastal settlements created by the landowners, others increasingly flocked to the cities to work in the factories, whilst many more were forced to emigrate.
Those who remained to work within the rural economy, and who were unable to secure or continue working a tack as a farmer, became part of a more mobile agricultural workforce, often moving regularly within a parish or from one parish to another to seek employment, whilst others became specialists in particular trades essential to the farming environment. At the bottom of the rung were the day labourers, who literally were hired by the day as and when required by farmers. Some lived within cottages which they built on waste ground, with the landowners’ permission, from which they would then hire themselves out. With the day’s chores complete, in their spare time they would plant potatoes and grain in the soil around them, feeding themselves and at the same time improve the quality of the land for the landlord. Others were more mobile, and were housed temporarily in bothies, small buildings which were often nothing more than basic rat infested huts with little furnishings but the simplest of amenities.
Particularly skilled agricultural workers such as ploughmen would be hired at fairs across the country for six months or a year at a time, usually reckoned from one of the term days of Martinmas (in November) or Whitsun (in May), a practice which all but died out towards the end of the 19th century. Once hired the ploughman and his family would take up their new position from the appropriate term day and be given accommodation close to the farm, where they would reside until the end of the contract, at which point they would seek employment at the next fair, and so on, though some remained with the same masters for several years on recurring contracts.
Trying to trace the movements of agricultural labourers can be difficult, but not always impossible. The censuses from 1841 to 1911 can of course help to locate them every ten years, but it is possible to build up a much more detailed picture of their lives as labourers. If you explore the records of baptism for their children, for example, you may well find that each child appears to have been born in a different parish or locality within the parish, which will give an idea of the geographic area around which they may have moved between contracts, as well as the frequency of their moves. Census and OPR records can be accessed via ScotlandsPeople (www.scotlandspeople.gov.uk) or in many local libraries and family history centres.
Contemporary newspapers (www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk) can provide details of the likely hiring fairs at which they were employed, which were often boisterous and fun filled occasions, and can at times even directly identify your ancestor, perhaps if he fell foul of the law or was the victor at a local ploughing competition. Church records can also help, detailing poor relief payments in the kirk session minutes for when times were hard, or perhaps instances when a labouring ancestor was hired for a specific task, which may be noted in the heritors’ records. Church of Scotland kirk session records have now all been digitised and can be accessed at the National Records of Scotland (www.nrscotland.gov.uk), as well as in many local archives in Glasgow, Hawick, Inverness and Orkney.
The two Statistical Accounts of Scotland at https://stataccscot.edina.ac.uk/static/statacc/dist/home can be extremely helpful to build up a sense of the labourer’s lot in life. Not only do they provide considerably detailed descriptions of the country’s parishes in the 1790s and 1830s-40s, they can also describe local farming and fair customs, as well as identify the key landowners within a parish, which can help you to try to trace any relevant estate records. Whilst rental records within estate papers will not often name most labourers (as they were not tenants), other sources such as estate wages books may record payments for work carried out, and name those so paid. A
guide to estate papers held at the NRS is available at
www.nrscotland.gov.uk/research/guides/estate-records,
although many other collections will also be found in local archives
across the country, and at the NLS.
There are many published parish histories which can also help to build up the picture further, with many books and reports also written which specifically concern the conditions endured by labourers. A useful book from 1861, for example, as hosted on Google Books at
http://tinyurl.com/5r3wdhd, is
The Cottage, the Bothy and the Kitchen, Being an Inquiry into the Condition of Agricultural Labourers in Scotland by James Robb, which explores the typical conditions for day labourers, ploughmen, kitchen servants and more within East Lothian, Fifeshire, Forfarshire, Aberdeenshire and Ross-shire, noting the wages paid for each form of employment and more. Other useful titles include several published transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland and the
Farmer’s Magazine, again with many examples found on Google.
Several
survey books were also published in the late 18th
century and early 19th
century on a county by county basis for the Board of Agriculture
entitled General View of
the Agriculture of the County of...
Each detailed the
state of the agricultural industry in that area, including discussion
on those working as labourers and farmers, the state of the land, and
suggestions for improvements. Most are available to view on both
Google Books and the Internet Archive; for example, General
View of the County of Inverness,
published in 1808, can be found at
https://bit.ly/GeneralViewAgricultureInverness.
A compilation of fourteen of the surveys from 1794, entitled General
View of the Agriculture of the Counties of Scotland, Issues 1-14
is available at https://bit.ly/GeneralViewAgricultureScotland,
and covers Fife, Galloway, the Hebrides, Central Highlands, East
Lothian, Midlothian, Southern Districts of the County of Perth,
Renfrew, Roxburgh, Selkirk and Tweedale (Peebles), along with an
account for the Isle of Man.
Finally, to gain a sense of the rural labouring lifestyle endured by most of our ancestors, a visit to the National Museum of Rural Life (www.nms.ac.uk/national-museum-of-rural-life/) at East Kilbride in Lanarkshire is well worth a visit. Various local museums across the country will also have agricultural displays, such as Dalgarven Mill (www.dalgarvenmill.org.uk) in Ayrshire (as pictured in this blog post!).
Chris
Just out, Sharing Your Family History Online is on sale at https://bit.ly/SharingFamHist. Tracing Your Scottish Family History on the Internet, at http://bit.ly/ChrisPaton-Scottish2 is also out, as are Tracing Your Irish Family History on the Internet (2nd ed) at http://bit.ly/ChrisPaton-Irish1 and Tracing Your Scottish Ancestry Through Church and State Records at http://bit.ly/ChrisPaton-Scotland1. Further news published daily on The Scottish GENES Facebook page, and on Twitter @genesblog.
